Though, today, in the light of the idea of correctional justice and due to presence of the international and regional binding and guiding documents, "victims compensation by the State" has become one of the important tools of criminal policy in most countries in Europe and Northern America, it has no proper place in the legal system of Iran. In this regard what that may be understood from establishment of governmental and non-governmental institutions is that the idea of protecting the insolvent criminal is of more importance than the idea of protecting the victim. But, in spite of theoretical and practical challenges, unused capacities of the Constitution as well as juridical principles concerning this issue are able to change state compensation to a rule (instead of an exception) in Iran.

The obligation of ethical statements is an important problem in ethics. Many Muslim scholars have regarded it as a command of reason, they know the statements of such a quality that reason can distinguish the necessity. The theories such as those of Brockson, social pressure and attracting tendency of man, Divine order and conscience have been suggested. Origionality of Divine command in ethical statements and conceptions is the problem of the paper. The legislator of Islamic immutable judgment, i. e. Divinity, legislates the rules and laws according to expediencies and seditions. Each seeker of happiness knows that attaining such an aim is conditioned by following special rules, he, therefore, make himself obliged to live in accordance to them.

The term moral obligations is used when the moral rules of our volitional acts are examined. Ayatollah Misbah thinks that obligatory concepts, that is "OUGHT tos and OUGHT NOT tos", are philosophical terms which refer to the real and significant relationship between man's volitional act and its consequences. Neither the doer and act nor this necessity constitutes the kind of necessity in relation to something else. The purpose of "OUGHT to" in moral propositions, like natural and mathematical propositions, is to explain the necessity between man's volitional act and his desired perfection.The important result of this theory is that all moral propositions, even “OUGHT tos” and “OUGHT NOT tos”, concern realities. The conventional concept of necessity also has an external origin and indicates the reality in itself. Therefore, the fallacy of "is-OUGHT to" in moral rules is rendered invalid; accordingly, “OUGHT tos” and “OUGHT NOT tos” have a root in reality, and it is possible that value propositions are based on factual propositions.

In Europe, a school of thOUGHT was formed by Hume, the Scottish philosopher, on the subject of the nature of the relationship between science and religion and following this on the nature of the relationship between science and ethics and the standing of ‘OUGHT and OUGHT NOT’ in ethics.Considering science and ethics separate is the outcome of the attempts of those who reconsidered the relationship between God and the world. They regarded religious and ethical propositions as the product of man’s internal sentiments and insisted on separating it from objective realities. From this perspective, human intellect has no role to play in discovering ethical propositions because logic doesn’t apply to them and they canNOT be verified. Although this point of view has been accepted by a small number of Muslim scholars, almost all Muslim scholars disagree with it and have rejected it on the basis of logical reasoning. This group of scholars believe that although ethics is NOT logically generated from science and philosophy, it is NOT essentially possible to offer an ethical proposition without depending on objective reality. Islamic scholars believe that there is a priority and posteriority relationship between ‘OUGHT and OUGHT NOT’ in ethics and ‘is and isn’t’ in science and philosophy, that is, after being informed about a scientific reality by means of theoretical intellect, man finds out the way to achieve that objective reality in the real world aided by practical intellect.Then, he expresses that in the form of recommendatory propositions and ethical ‘OUGHTs’. In fact, these scholars do NOT consider the generation of value from knowledge a logical process, rather, they believe that it is based on two propositions: one scientific and the other ethical. They hold that practical intellect as a posterior instrument makes use of the power of the theoretical intellect as an anterior instrument, gains access to ethical recommendations and offers them in the form of ‘OUGHT and OUGHT NOT’. This is the same kind of relationship that exists between science and philosophy, on the one hand, and ethics, on the other, since practical intellect canNOT stipulate anything without knowledge and deliberation.

Virtue ethics or virtue-based ethics is considered to be a normative theory which is perceived to be of vital necessity in the revival of moral values in this declining age of modernism and the emergence of post-modernism, with the failure of its moral theories to propose a new model for the salvation of human beings. In an age of moral estrangement and chilling moral conscience which is, in fact, the consequence of mutilating the truth of humanity, the necessity of moral virtues and the significance of human fulfillment reaches its climax. Casting a glance at virtue ethics, the present article seeks to explore the nature of virtue ethics, its geographical position and its course of development throughout the history. Differing statements regarding virtue ethics, though they have some points in common, develop various views that are of significance in understanding and explaining virtue ethics and its practical consequences.

This research endeavors to introduce a novel concept in ethics, namely ethics based on the primacy of existence, drawing upon Aṣālat al-wujūd, the theory of the primacy of existence in ontology. Mullā Sadrā's philosophy, which has three basic tenets—the primacy of existence, substantial motion (Ḥarakat-i Juharī), and gradation in existence (Tashkīk-i wujūd)—is the basis for this doctrine. The primacy of existence holds that quiddity is a mental construct and that existence is fundamental. The writers distinguished between two conceptions of ethics in this regard: one based on existence and the other on quiddity. Human quiddity is fixed and does NOT grade, hence ethics based on quiddity's primacy will always be fixed and the same for every individual. Moral obligations are universal and shared by all individuals. On the other hand, moral obligations for humans might vary depending on their existential status, according to ethics grounded in the primacy of existence. Moral OUGHTs and OUGHT NOTs are established by human existential grades in this ethics. This ethical model is flexible and dynamic.

Despite the well-established importance and effectiveness of pragmatic instruction in expediting ESL and EFL learners’ pragmatic development as frequently corroborated by many scholars, the cognitive and psychological dimensions of learners in pragmatic learning and the way those might impact their pragmatic learning has so far received insufficient attention. Therefore, the present study has made every possible effort to delve into the possible impact of ideal L2 self, and OUGHT-to L2 self on EFL Learners’ L2 functional use. Fifty-two Iranian English students took part in this research project. First, the two questionnaires (i. e. ideal L2 self and OUGHT-to L2 self) adopted from Dö rnyei and Taguchi (2010) were distributed among the participants. Moreover, the participants went through a six-week instructional period and received pragmatic instruction at the end of their regular class hour for thirty minutes. Finally, all the participants were required to complete two discourse completion tests containing eight scenarios borrowed from both Schauer’ s (2009), and Jalilifar’ s (2009) as pretest and posttest. This would enable the researchers to assess the participants’ pre- and post-instructional pragmatic knowledge. Descriptive statistics and independent samples t-tests were run to analyze the data. The findings indicate that high ideal L2 self group significantly outperformed the high OUGHT-to L2 self group with regard to their pragmatic performances on discourse completion tests. The study further implies that factors such as the individuals’ ideal L2 self can be regarded as determining and pivotal when it comes to the amount of learning that takes place in learners with either high ideal L2 self or those with high OUGHT-to L2 self.

Avoiding the ethical relativism and providing the preparations of ethical education are among the most important concerns of scholars in the field of ethics. Two theories of i`tibariat and realism about ethical cases of OUGHT to are discussed among Muslim scholars each seeking to overcome the problem of ethical relativism. It seems that attempts for illustrating the ethical cases of OUGHT to and for showing its reference to reality are easier and clearer solution for absolutism in ethics. In this regard, three theories of. necessity by the other., necessity with regard to the other. and mental. obligations.have been proposed by contemporary scholars. After explaining these viewpoints, the paper aims at determining the evidences of the ethical cases of. OUGHT to. and. obligationss. as well as the most important theories proposed about this problem. For this purpose, after explaining the mentioned theories and evaluating them, we concluded that attributing the theory of necessity by the other to Dr. Ha.eri Yazdi is incorrect while it is an ethics suggested by. necessity with regard to the other. that is existed between desirability of ethical action and desirability of its result.

The method of metaphysics: Metaphysics is empirical but depends NOT, like the sciences, on recondite experience but on close attention to aspects of everyday experience we ordinarily scarcely NOTice. "Real" is a broader concept than "exists" (which applies only to particulars) and also applies to phenomena, kinds, and laws, which are real, but NOT, of course, existent entities. But "there are real kinds, laws, etc." doesn't imply that all the kinds and laws we believe are real, are. I call my approach "Innocent Realism" because--though it's certainly NOT naive--it requires attending to experience, so far as possible, without substantial preconceptions. There is one real world, enormously varied but also integrated. It includes physical stuff, kinds, laws, etc. and, here on earth, a vast array of human artifacts, physical, social, intellectual, and imaginative, all intimately interconnected. All this requires human mindedness (a better word than "mind" because it doesn't suggest that human mentality is an organ like the heart or the liver). Rather, it's a complex congeries of dispositions and abilities: to understand even such a relatively simple thing as what's involved in someone's believing something, we need to take account of the person's dispositions to behavior, verbal and otherwise; to the neurophysiological realizations of these dispositions; and to their connections to the world and to words in the person's linguistic community--this last requiring other people's words-world connection. "Virtual" reality is just one more computer artifact, clever, no doubt, but NOT metaphysically startling. It's oversold, but this is advertising hype, NOT serious metaphysics.

One of the important issues in moral philosophy is the relation between “OUGHT” and “is”. Many different views have been arisen about this issue. One of these views is ’Allameh Tabatabayi’s view. According to his view, moral OUGHT and OUGHT NOT are inventions that originate in human beings’ establishing the real relation between his voluntary acts and their consequences, and the “OUGHT” are based on the acts, although they are NOT induced from the facts.